Article 51 and cyberspace: the UN Charter constraints and the expanding frontiers of self-defence against cyber operations
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.17323/jil.2025.32003Keywords:
UN Charter, use of force, cyberspace, cybersecurity, self-defenceAbstract
The United Nations Charter, at its 80th anniversary, remains the cornerstone of international law governing the use of force and the maintenance of peace and security. However, the rapid development of information and communication technologies (hereafter — ICTs) in recent decades has introduced unprecedented challenges to its application, particularly in cyberspace. The ambiguity surrounding the interpretation of key UN Charter provisions — Article 2(4) on the prohibition of the use of force and Article 51 on self-defence — in the context of cyber operations has led to legal and strategic uncertainties. States increasingly engage in hostile cyber activities that blur the line between permissible acts and prohibited use of force. This raises critical questions about attribution and international responsibility, as well as escalation risks. This paper examines how the UN Charter’s framework struggles to address cyber conflicts in the context of jus ad bellum. Apart from the applicability of Article 51 in cyber context, the paper considers extra-Charter modalities of self-defence in cyberspace, based on the international treaties within the North Atlantic Treaty Organization and the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, to explore potential legal and institutional adaptations to uphold international peace and security in the digital age.
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